The Battle of Arx Cynwit (878 CE)            

The Case for Countisbury Hillfort (Wind Hill) near Lynmouth Bay, Exmoor

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Abstract

This study examines the Battle of Cynwit in early 878 AD, a pivotal conflict in Devonshire, England, between Danish Vikings and a victorious Wessex fyrd militia. The battle is not widely recognised, yet it was momentous for several reasons.

Led by an unnamed konungr or king, possibly called Ubba or Hubba—Old Norse: Ubbi; died 878—a large Danish force laid siege to the hillfort of Cynwit, proposed to be at Countisbury Castle, also known as Wind Hill, which stands above Lynmouth in Exmoor National Park.

At grid reference SS 7386 4953 to SS 7410 4922, this British Iron Age univallate promontory fort (c. 800 BC to AD 43) lies a few miles east of Combe Martin in the South West region of England. 

Chronicles state that under Ealdorman (Earl) Odda, Wessex noblemen and their followers launched a surprise dawn ambush, decisively routing the Viking siege force. The Vikings were caught off-guard, and Hubba's Raven war-flag was captured. 

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that 840 out of 1,200 Vikings were killed, including Hubba and 40 elite housecarls. The ninth-century chronicler Asser notes that the West Saxons "slew most of the Danes, together with their king."

Odda's victory was crucial in preventing the total subjugation of Wessex, the last remaining early-English kingdom.

Subsequent conflicts and Viking defeats, during the year 878 AD, were vital for early-English or Englisc independence, in the face of the Viking juggernaut and in times of political fragmentation. 

The Battle of Cynwit was a crucial military success for Alfred the Great and the Kingdom of Wessex, bolstering resistance against Viking invasions and shaping the course of English history and identity. While contemporary sources provide context, they do not specify the battle's exact location.

The 9th century was a transformative period for Wessex, particularly under the leadership of King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899 AD). However, it is necessary to challenge the single narrative and to acknowledge other perspectives.

Alfred’s reign is marked by several key achievements that helped unify the Englisc and establish Wessex as the dominant English kingdom.

This article offers a resource for medieval history and Viking studies, blending scholarly rigour with accessibility. It includes an analysis of the battle's sources, context, and implications. 

Introduction

Before Alfred the Great's attempts to unify England, the area was a fragmented landscape of various independent kingdoms, governed by the Angles, Saxons, and Germanic Jutish settlers.

The Heptarchy consisted of seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and East Anglia (The Historical Association, 2024).

This lack of a centralised political or cultural identity is crucial in understanding the geopolitical dynamics of the period. The term 'Anglecynn', meaning 'people of the Angles', was used regionally rather than nationally.

Abels, Richard. Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. 1st Edition, Routledge, 1998. eBook published 30 September 2013. ISBN 9781315846286.

Historical Association: Anglo-Saxons: a brief history. October 21, 2024. https://www.history.org.uk/primary/resource/3865/anglo-saxons-a-brief-history.

Asser, a ninth-century Welsh chronicler from St Davids, Pembrokeshire, is best known for his biography of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871 to 899 AD. Written around 893 AD, Asser's Life of Alfred recounts the West Saxon victory over the Danish Viking army in early 878.

Active as a bishop, scholar, and biographer from at least 885 until his death in 909 AD, Asser's semi-hagiographic Life of Alfred provides a valuable account of Alfred’s reign and accomplishments (Lloyd, J. E., & Lloyd, D. M., Dictionary of Welsh Biography, online, n.d).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 878 AD, originating during King Alfred's reign, places Cynwit in Devonshire: "And in the winter of this same year the brother of Ingwar and Healfden landed in Wessex, in Devonshire, with three and twenty ships" (Ingram, J.H., Transl., 1996).

"And there was he slain, and eight hundred men with him, and forty of his army. There also was taken the war-flag, which they called the RAVEN" (Unknown author, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1996 [ J. H. Ingram, Trans.]). 

The limited availability of Danish Viking sources regarding the events of 878 AD can be attributed to their reliance on oral tradition, runic inscriptions, or treaties. There are virtually no written records left from Viking sources.

Additionally, their cultural emphasis on raiding and trading over record-keeping, along with the possible loss of any written records, contributed to this scarcity.

Our Viking history reference table> attached to this paper provides a concise overview of key events, dates, and figures related to Viking history.

Our thesis is two-fold: first, that Wind Hill is a primary candidate for the battle site; and  second, that the Battle of Cynwit was a crucial military success for Alfred and Wessex.

The Cynwit victory bolstered resistance against Viking invasions and laid the groundwork for the unification of England, which significantly influenced the formation of English national identity.

Challenging the Singular Narrative: Acknowledging All Perspectives

While the article highlights King Alfred's military successes and their significance for the unification of England, it’s essential to consider the broader context of these events.

In order to challenge the traditional narrative, it is necessary to recognise the diversity of perspectives in early English history. The focus on Wessex triumphs often overshadows the complex realities faced by other regions and peoples, during this period.

The narrative of a singular English identity emerging from these conflicts risks marginalising the perspectives of the Celtic tribes, Angles, Saxon, Jutes, and the Norse communities. These were all integral to the history of early medieval Britain.

Moreover, the portrayal of Alfred as a unifying hero may overlook the ongoing local resistance and the diverse political landscape of the time, which included not only English kingdoms but also Norse settlers who had established their own systems of governance and cultural identities.

The concepts of "Anglo-Saxondom" and "Englishness" as cultural and ethnic identities are  discussed in modern scholarly debates (Hines, J. [Ed.], 2003, The Anglo-Saxon World. Blackwell Publishing).

Recognising these dynamics allows for a more nuanced understanding of early English history; one that acknowledges the contributions and experiences of all groups involved, rather than framing the narrative solely through the lens of Wessex's ascendance.

Evaluating Countisbury Castle (Wind Hill) as a Primary Candidate

Occurring “ante arcem Cynuit” —before the fortress of Cynuit—this battle probably took place at Countisbury Hillfort also called Wind Hill, National Grid Reference SS 73909 49477. Wind Hill, summit c.300 metres, is a few miles east of Combe Martin in North Devon.

Given the strategic location of the hillfort at Countisbury, which is described as having steep natural defences, it can be inferred that access to water might have been limited, particularly from the east where the siege was focused.

The Saxons would have needed to rely on any available water within the fort itself, or potentially draw from nearby streams or springs which are present today (National Trust). The East Lyn River runs to the south of Countisbury and could be a significant source of water. Its proximity makes it a likely candidate for fresh water.

Analysing the etymology: Countisbury (Contesberie, Domesday Book; Cuntesberia 1178 Pipe Rolls; -bir 1200, Curia Regis rolls. Cantebire, 1228 Feet of Fines). This suggests that Countisbury is Asser's arx Cynuit or Cynwit, stated to be a fort.

Cynuit is identical with COUND and KENNET and with Cynwyd in Wales, but the name here refers to a hill, whose name (Cunétié or Cunétid) seems to be derived from the base kuno - ‘high’ in Welsh cwn.

Countisbury is thus Brit Cunét, to which was added an explanatory Old English BURG. Brit Cunét became normally Old Welsh Cynuit or Cynwit, Welsh Cynwyd.

Countisbury evolved from Cunét with the addition of "BURG" to clarify that it referred to a high place or a fortified hill. Thus, "Countisbury" can be understood as "the hill or fort of Cunét."

In 2006, Michael Rayner, co-ordinator of the Battlefields Trust with some authority, agreed with other historians that the arx Cynwit was "the spectacular" Countisbury Castle on Wind Hill.

Alongside Rayner's opinion, several elements in this paper collectively build a case for Countisbury Wind Hill as the most plausible location for the Battle of Cynwit, grounding the argument in geographical, historical, and archaeological contexts.

Wind Hill as a Military Lookout

During King Alfred’s time, Wind Hill’s vantage point would have been an important military lookout for monitoring Viking movements along the Bristol Channel.

Historical Significance of Wind Hill

As an Iron Age hillfort, Wind Hill had a long history of settlement and defensive use by 878 AD, making it historically, culturally, and symbolically important to local tribes.

Asser’s Account of Cynwit

Asser wrote that the Cynwit promontory fort, in which "the King’s thegns and their followers had shut themselves up", was “secure from every direction, except the east” (tutissimus est ab omni parte, nisi ab orientali). This description aligns with modern archaeological surveys.

Asser's writings provide some insights, but they are not comprehensive. The battle of Cynwit is mentioned within the broader context of Alfred's military campaigns, but without extensive details on its strategy, scale, or immediate consequences. 

Descriptions of the Siege in Alfred’s Biography

In some translations of Alfred’s biography, Asser states that the Cynwit stronghold, which he himself had "seen", was "thrown up in our fashion". The Danes were starving the stronghold of potable water and supplies, and so the Saxon militia launched a successful dawn ambuscade. 

Asser’s Familiarity with Wind Hill

Asser would have been familiar with Wind Hill, from his trips along the Bristol Channel from St Davids, Pembrokeshire . The Exmoor location was, historically, part of the broader landscape of Wessex, where Alfred sought to unify and strengthen his kingdom against Viking invasions.

A Key Event in English History

This West Saxon triumph in 878 marked a pivotal moment in the struggle against Danish invasions. It set the stage for the eventual unification of England under the House of Wessex, the lineage from which several English monarchs descend.

The Unification of England: Alfred the Great and His Successors

In 886, Alfred the Great reclaimed London from the Danish Vikings and subsequently declared himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, a title he held until his death in 899.

During the early tenth-century, his descendants, Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) and Æthelstan (reigned 924–939), unified the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to establish the Kingdom of the English.

Ellis, Caitlin. "Alfred versus the Viking Great Army." The Historian, vol. 139, Autumn 2018, pp. 16–22. Available at: Academia.edu.

Whitelock, Dorothy. "Alfred." Encyclopaedia Britannica, September 2024. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-king-of-Wessex.

Significance of the Battle of Cynwit

The significance of the Battle of Cynwit lies not only in this victory but also in its role in consolidating various kingdoms and cultures into a single nation. This legacy persists in the structure of the English monarchy and national identity today.

Exploring the Historical Importance of the Battle of Arx Cynwit

This article explores the historical importance of the Battle of Arx Cynwit, debating its precise location. We argue that Wind Hill’s terrain offers strong defensive advantages, an argument supported by primary sources including Asser’s Life of King Alfred and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Visual Context and References

Our thesis includes maps and images to provide visual context. Extensive citations and references to reputable sources underpin our analysis.

Abels, Richard: Alfred The Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, The Medieval World. Essex, Longman, 1998.

Asser (Author); Keynes, Simon [Transl.] (1983): Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources. Penguin.

Asser. Life of King Alfred. Translated by Albert Beebe White and Wallace Notestein. In Source Problems in English History, edited by Albert Beebe White and Wallace Notestein, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1915. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/asser.asp.

Dot to Domesday (online): "Asser". URL: Http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/asser.htm.

Historic England (2024): "Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort (1020807)". National Heritage List for England.

Stenton, Frank. M. (1963):  Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford : Clarendon Press; Second Edition (1 Jan. 1963).

Influences on subsequent battles during Alfred's reign:

1. Boosted Morale: The West Saxon victory at Cynwit significantly uplifted Anglo-Saxon morale.
2. The death of Hubba and his elite warrior retinue diminished the Danes' morale, their order of battle, and their prospects for total conquest. 
3. The effective defence at Cynwit built confidence among both military and civilian populations.
4. Military Strategy: The tactics used at Cynwit, especially the surprise element and terrain advantage, shaped Alfred's future military strategies.
5. Alfred adopted more organized approaches to warfare, emphasising fortifications and establishing a network of burhs (fortified towns).
6. Unification of Forces: This victory solidified Alfred’s leadership and unified various factions within Wessex, essential for mobilizing resources and manpower against the Vikings, particularly the Great Heathen Army. 
7. Viking Disruption: The defeat at Cynwit weakened Viking confidence and disrupted their regional plans, giving Alfred time to regroup and strengthen his defences.
8. Alfred ultimately achieved victory over Guthrum at Edington in 878. 
9. Political Legitimacy: Alfred's victory at Cynwit made him a more respected and accepted leader, reinforcing his right to govern.
10. Alfred positioned himself as the protector of the Anglo-Saxon people, and forged crucial alliances with regional leaders for future engagements.

Wind Hill: A Highly Defensible Iron Age Fort

Wind Hill at Countisbury includes two protected areas with the artificial defences of an Iron Age promontory fort. It is the highest hill within the enclosed area (Historic England 1020807).

The hillfort utilised steep natural defences on three sides, created by the precipitous sea cliffs overlooking Lynmouth Bay to the north, and the deep valleys of the East Lyn River to the south.

A high rampart and ditch completed the defensive circuit across the only gentle approach from the east, enclosing a large, irregular area of about 35 hectares equivalent to about 86.5 acres (ibid).

In summary, a combination of natural and man-made defences created a stronghold that was highly defensible against attacks (Historic England L.E.N. 1020807, Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort).

Discussing the Sources

Although the Vikings did not document their own history in books, we have knowledge of their global movements thanks to foreign chroniclers and narrators, who recorded their encounters with them (National Museum of Denmark, 2024).

The scarcity of Danish Viking sources about the events of 878 AD can be attributed to their reliance on oral tradition, runic inscriptions, and treaties. Also to their cultural focus on raiding and trading rather than record-keeping, and the potential loss of any such records.

Combe Martin historian John H. Moore states that "the Vikings left no place names in Devon (if we exclude Lundy which means Puffin Island). Yet a few Anglo-Danish personal names appear later in Cnut's time." (Sellman, 1962, p. 23).

Much of the historical narrative comes from Anglo-Saxon sources, which emphasise their own perspective and victories, and are therefore open to bias. While archaeological evidence offers some insights, it often requires interpretation and lacks detailed narratives.

Graham-Campbell, James (Author). The Viking World. London: Thames & Hudson, 1980. Frances Lincoln; Reprint edition with McGrail, Sean (Contributor), 2013.

National Museum of Denmark (2024): "Written Sources." https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/written-sources/.

The original manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, likely in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great (Hunter Blair, P., 1956).

We know of nine versions or fragments of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (ASC) historicity in existence, all of which vary—sometimes greatly—in content and quality. Importantly, this collection of texts provides a continuous narrative of English history from the 9th century to the 12th century, documenting key events, kings, and cultural shifts.

Historians agree that the Common Stock of the ASC, also referred to as the Early English Annals, was compiled into its current form between 890 and 892.

This occurred prior to Bishop Asser's use of a version of the Common Stock in his 893 AD work, The Life of King Alfred (Bately, 1985).

Æthelweard (d. 998), a 10th-century chronicler and ealdorman, authored the Chronicon Æthelweardi, a Latin version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He recorded events up to 878 but only briefly mentioned the battle at Cynwit, claiming that "in the end the Danes held the victory."

Elsewhere, Geoffrey Gaimer, a twelfth-century Anglo-Norman chronicler, asserts that Hubba landed from South Wales along the Exmoor coast, where he encountered the Saxons at a fort named Cynwit (National Trust, 100256 / MNA108011).

Gaimer's Anglo-Norman verse chronicle encompasses various historical events and figures, notably the confrontation between Hubba and the Saxons at Cynwit.

The Estoire des Engleis chronicles English history from the landing of Cerdic of Wessex in 495 to the death of King William Rufus in 1100.

Geoffrey Gaimar does not identify Wind Hill as the battle site. Written in Lincolnshire c.1136-37, Gaimer's work is the oldest surviving example of historiography in the French vernacular.

If Gaimer is reliable, the Vikings might have landed at Lynmouth and used the extensive defensive earthworks on Wind Hill to secure their beachhead.

The combination of a suitable landing site like Lynmouth and the defensive capabilities of Wind Hill, could have played a significant role in Viking attempts to establish a presence in the region.

Historical sources can be ambiguous, leading to varied interpretations. Asser, and Geoffrey Gaimar’s reliability as a source, are a subject of debate among historians.

Ancient and medieval chroniclers' accounts may be influenced by their perspective, the sources they had access to, and their intended audience. Their accounts are often blended with legend.

Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort, Lynton and Lynmouth - 1020807 | Historic England.

Gaimar (Author), Thomas Wright [ed.] (1850): The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle Of Geoffrey Gaimar. Kessinger Publishing, 2008. 

Hardy & Martin (1888): Lestorie des Engles solum la translacion maistre Geffrei Gaimar. London : Eyre and Spottiswoode.

Hunter Blair, Peter. An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England. 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1956.

National Trust Heritage Records | 100256 / MNA108011 | Countisbury Camp, Countisbury Castle or Wind Hill, Watersmeet.

Cynwit (878) and Englefield (870) in the Context of Viking Invasions

The Battle of Cynwit (878) and the preceding Battle of Englefield (870), are connected through the broader context of the Viking invasions of England during the late 9th century. Paul Hill covers the subject in his The Viking Wars of Alfred the Great (2015). 

The Battle of Englefield [Anglefield] occurred around 31 December 870, near Reading, Berkshire. This engagement marked a significant victory for the West Saxons over a Danish Viking army. It was one of several conflicts following the Viking invasion of Wessex in December 870 AD.

These battles were part of the Viking incursions into Anglo-Saxon territories. The Vikings aimed to conquer and settle in England, leading to numerous conflicts with the local Saxon forces.

At Englefield under the leadership of Æthelwulf, Ealdorman of Berkshire, the West Saxon forces successfully defeated the Viking contingent, killing one of their jarls and forcing the remainder to retreat. 

However, this triumph was short-lived, as subsequent battles, including the Battle of Reading in early 871, saw the Vikings regroup and counterattack against the Saxons. Reading was a significant victory for the Danish Viking army over the West Saxon forces.

These victories were separated by several years. Yet they were part of the ongoing struggle that eventually led to the establishment of a more unified England under Alfred the Great.

Alfred was King of the West Saxons from 871 to 886, and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 886 until his death in 899. His defensive strategies were crucial in preventing the total subjugation of Wessex, the last remaining Anglo-Saxon kingdom.

In summary, Englefield and Cynuit highlight the strategic importance of local leadership, and early signs that the Anglo-Saxons were able to rally and defend against Viking forces.

Abels, Richard. Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Longman, 1998.

Berkshire History | David Nash Ford (2003).

Exmoor National Park MEM25099 - Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury (Monument).

Viking Ship Museum Roskilde (2024): The Vikings in England by Barbara Højlund.

865 CE: The Heathen Army’s Arrival in England

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) and tradition: Viking commander Hubba/Ubba led a large Viking invasion on England during 865 CE, along with his brothers Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson.

Unlike on previous visits, the heathens were not here to loot but rather to settle the farmland.

The "heathen army" wintered in East Anglia; they are recorded as moving on to capture York in 866 CE, which led to the death of King Aella of Northumbria.

Oral and written traditions hold that the Danes sought to avenge the execution of Ragnar Lodbrok at the hands of the Anglo-Saxon King Aella of Northumbria (Waggoner, Ben, 2015). 

According to Viking Sagas, a genre of Old Norse literature, Ragnar was captured and killed by Aella. This sparked outrage among the Danes and led to subsequent invasions aimed at avenging his death.

These sagas were written in Iceland, where the oral traditions of the Viking Age were transcribed into written form. They blend historical events with mythological elements.

The Cambridge History of Scandinavia.

The Great Viking Army

This great army comprised up to 3,000 people; the exact numbers are difficult to determine due to the nature of the records. Specifically, the ASC describes the arrival of the Great Army and its impact on England.

According to Barbara Højlund at the Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde (n.d.), the Vikings conquered the whole of Northumbria, parts of Mercia, and East Anglia.

In the earliest version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dating from the 9th to 12th centuries, this coalition of Scandinavian pagans is described in Old English as "micel here," meaning "Great Army" (Swanton, 1996).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the most important written work in English before the Norman Conquest. The Parker Chronicle, also known as the A-version, is the oldest surviving manuscript (Swanton, 1996).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions a Viking leader named Ragnall or Reginherus, who some historians believe to be the "Danish Viking hero king" Ragnar Lothbrok, also known as Lodbrok.

However, the Chronicle does not specifically mention that these Viking leaders were avenging the death of their father, Ragnar Lodbrok.

This narrative comes primarily from later Norse sagas and other medieval sources, such as the Ragnarssona þáttr (The Tale of Ragnar’s Sons) and the Gesta Danorum (Deeds of the Danes) by the twelfth-century author Saxo Grammaticus.

Poor literacy standards in the contemporary Scandinavia left us very few credible Viking sources.

Britannica (2023): Ragnar Lothbrok, Viking hero| National Trust (2015-2024): Heritage Record 100256 / MNA108011.

Read more at The Historical Association (2011): The Vikings in Britain: a brief history.

The Icelandic Saga Database: https://sagadb.org.

The Pivotal Anglo-Saxon Victory at Arx Cynuit

Over the winter of 877-878 AD, a Viking army led by Guthrum attacked and seized Chippenham on the River Avon. Around January 878, a second army of some twelve-hundred Danes came from Dyfed, Cymru.

The precise identity of the Viking leader from Dyfed is still a topic of debate among historians, owing to the limitations and varying interpretations of ancient sources.

In a desperate gamble, the West Saxon fyrd garrison, led by Odda [Oddune], Ealdorman of Devon, surged out of Cynuit at dawn and decimated the Viking siege force.

How Ealdorman Odda Defeated the Viking Siege

The social and political structures of Anglo-Saxon England included ealdormen as high-ranking nobles, who managed regions and served as military leaders.

1. Strategic Use of Terrain

• Viking Misjudgment: The Vikings, led by Hubba/Ubba, likely assumed that the Saxons were trapped within the fort with no escape route, leading them to besiege it.
• Asser’s account suggests that the Vikings expected to starve the defenders into surrender, misjudging the Saxons' ability to launch a counterattack.
• Saxon Advantage: The West Saxons, familiar with the local terrain, could have used the difficult approach to their advantage.

2. The Element of Surprise

• Both Asser’s account and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle emphasize the surprise nature of the Saxon attack.
• The Saxons, likely aware that they couldn’t withstand a prolonged siege, chose to act decisively.
• Asser describes how the West Saxon forces, led by Ealdorman Odda, sallied out of the hillfort at dawn and caught the Vikings off guard.
• Timing of the Attack: The dawn attack was a crucial factor. The Vikings would have been least prepared at this time, possibly still resting or in disarray from their encampment.
• The suddenness of the attack gave the Saxons a psychological advantage, as the Vikings were not expecting a fight so soon after setting up their siege.
• Tactical Surprise: By remaining quiet within the fort, the Saxons led the Vikings to believe they were passive and waiting for starvation.
• When the Saxons surged out, they likely attacked with intensity and speed, overwhelming the Vikings, who were unprepared for battle.

3. Viking Overconfidence

• The Vikings, led by Hubba/Ubba, were part of a larger Viking campaign that had been devastating Anglo-Saxon territories for years.
• They had just spent the winter in Dyfed (Southwest Wales) and likely expected to continue their successful raids in Devon.
• Their confidence was probably bolstered by their numbers (estimated at around 1200 men).
• Their possession of the Raven Banner, a Viking symbol believed to guarantee victory.
• The Danes underestimated the Saxons.

4. Ambush Tactics

• The Saxons could have positioned themselves strategically along the narrow paths leading to the fort, attacking the Vikings in small, isolated groups.
• This would have minimized the effectiveness of the Viking shield wall, which required a flat, open battlefield to operate efficiently.
• Decisive Victory: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that 840 Vikings were killed, including Hubba/Ubba.

Hubba's Raven Banner

Historical sources state that the Anglo-Saxons captured the Vikings' raven banner or totem at Cynuit (Anglo Saxon Chronicle & Asser's biography of King Alfred):

And the same winter the brother of Hingwar and of Halfdene came with twenty-three ships to Devonshire in Wessex; and he was there slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his army: and there was taken the war-flag which they called the Raven (Giles, J.A. [1914], The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

In translations of the Life of King Alfred (893 CE), Asser described the fortifications at the arx Cynuit: "the ramparts thrown up in our fashion" (moenia nostro more erecta), or "walls erected in our custom", as he himself had "seen".

Asser's manuscript survived to modern times in only one copy which was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731. 

Asser’s work was reconstructed from earlier transcriptions and the inclusion of Asser’s material by other early writers (Gallagher, 2021). 

Gallagher, Robert: Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters. The English Historical Review, Volume 136, Issue 581, August 2021.

Turning the Tide: The West Saxon Resistance Against Viking Domination

Conquering Wessex, the last surviving Anglo-Saxon kingdom, was crucial for Viking dominance. By attacking both Chippenham and the arx Cynuit almost simultaneously, the Vikings put immense pressure on Alfred and his forces. 

With King Alfred on the run, the West Saxons, trapped, encircled and running out of water, managed to defeat Hubba's army. This victory must have been a huge morale boost for the local population and for King Alfred.

Moreover, Earl Odda's militia helped to stop the Vikings' domination of England. And their tactics probably influenced their King's eventual victory over the Great Heathen Army, later that same year.

Ancient hillforts were fortified structures and refuges, strategically placed, and typically encircled by one or more series of embankments and trenches. Timber and clay created a defensive wall or rampart. The name Countisbury [Cunsbear in antiquarian descriptions] can also be transcribed as "the headland camp" (The National Trust, 2024).

A layer of stone, called a revetment, supported the sides of embankments. There are several ancient hillforts in Devon, commonly situated on bluffs, headlands, spurs, or promontories

DBpedia.org: Battle of Cynwit (878 CE).

MEM25099 - Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury - The Historic Environment Record for Exmoor National Park (exmoorher.co.uk).

National Trust Record ID: 100256 / MNA108011: Countisbury Camp, Countisbury Castle or Wind Hill, Watersmeet.

Viking Leader Guthrum | Viking, Viking Invasion & England | Britannica.

Asser's Life of King Alfred; 54 "The Danes Defeated at Cynwit".

Keynes, Simon; Lapidge, Michael (1983). Alfred the Great, Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin.

Historic England: Hillforts.

England on the Cusp of Defeat

When the Vikings seized Chippenham, early in 878: King Alfred and a small retinue fled to Athelney, Bridgwater, in the marshes of Somerset. According to history, it was around this time that a dejected King Alfred 'burned some cakes' at the home of a peasant woman.

Alfred and the men of Somerset continued to resist the Vikings, while Wessex and potentially England appeared to be lost before the West Saxons turned the tables. 

King Alfred and the Cakes (historic-uk.com)

The Forgotten Battle of Cynwit

The oft-overlooked Battle of Cynwit/Cynuit contributed to King Alfred's ultimate destruction of the Great Viking Army that had ravaged the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy since the 860s. 

Just a short sea trip from where the Norsemen were overwintering on the Isle of Anglesey: Viking leader Hubba Ragnarsson met his end at Cynwit and a significant part of the Viking fleet was destroyed.

According to contemporary records: their totem, Hubba's personal Raven war-flag/Standard, was captured. Forty of Hubba's personal retinue or hearth-troop were also lost at Cynwit, including his most skilled and experienced advisors. 

Readers can find extracts from our Viking Study reference table attached at the bottom of this page (see Terms), along with a local area map. 

Asser's Life of King Alfred: "The Danes Defeated at Cynwit".

The Saxon victory at Cynwit was also recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 878 CE.

National Trust MNA108011 | National Trust Heritage Records: Wind Hill [Countisbury Castle].

The Megalithic Portal: Wind Hill - Hillfort in England in Devon.

Rayner, Michael (2006): English battlefields : 500 battlefields that shaped English history - "Countisbury Hill". The History Press.

The "Heathens Cut Down" 

According to the Life—one of the most important sources of information on Alfred the Great —the Danes attempted to starve the Cynwit populace, believing it to be unprepared for battle.

Asser wrote that "the Christians, before they began at all to suffer from such want, being inspired by Heaven, and judging it much better to gain either victory or death, sallied out suddenly upon the heathen at daybreak.”

[Asser continues] “And from the first, cut [the Danes] down in great numbers, slaying also their king [Hubba alt. Ubbe], so that few escaped to their ships" ("The Danes Defeated at Cynwit").

Despite their fighting prowess, Viking raiders often found themselves outmatched against organised professional soldiers who were well-equipped and supported by the king.

"The Vikings lost quite often, and mass graves show failed raids" (Roesdahl, 2023, Aarhus University, Denmark). 

The Chronicon Æthelweardi

Æthelweard [Ethelward] (d. 998), a 10th-century chronicler and ealdorman, wrote a Latin version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle known as the Chronicon Æthelweardi. Æthelweard details the events leading up to 878, yet he only briefly reported the battle at Cynwit and says, curiously, that "in the end the Danes held the victory".

The Danes buried their dead after the battle, including Hubba their leader. Æthelweard acknowledges their resilience and determination; even in defeat they appeared to be masters of the battlefield. 

According to an ancient Chronicle cited in the 1770s by the antiquarian scholar Thomas Hearne (Archeologia, Volume VII): when the Danes discovered the fallen warriors Hinguar and Hubba, they reverently carried them to a nearby mountain and erected a sacred memorial. 

The exact burial location is not known, and such information is merely part of the myth around Cynwit. Yet Æthelweard's accounts provide valuable insights into the history of Anglo-Saxon England.

He had familial ties to the royal lineage, being a descendant of King Æthelred I of Wessex, an Anglo-Saxon monarch and older sibling of Alfred the Great.

Campbell, A. ed. (1962): The chronicle of Æthelweard. London. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 

Lack of Evidence for Countisbury Wind Hill as Arx Cynuit

Neither the archaeological evidence nor the historical records from that time, including the corpus of Anglo-Saxon Chronicles and the writings of Asser, provide clear geographical details that would definitively identify Countisbury Hill, or any other candidate, as the site of the arx Cynwit in the year 878.

The interpretation of historical and linguistic evidence often involves a degree of uncertainty, and new findings can lead to revisions in our understanding of historical events.

Alternative Sites for Cynwit 

Kenwith Castle (Torridge, Northam) has been suggested; "The hill is identified by Vidal with the Saxon defensive position before a decisive defeat of the Danes in 878 which is named the "Battle of Cynuit" by the contemporary [Prelate Chronicler] Asser" (Historic England, 2023).

Oxford Reference (2023): Asser, Bishop of Sherbourne (d. 909 CE).

Cannington Parish Council states that "Cannington Hill is believed to be the site of a battle in AD878 when the Saxons under King Odda defeated a force of Danish sea raiders who landed at nearby Combwich". This suggests that arx Cynwit could be Cannington Camp which is 1.5 kilometres west of the tidal estuary of the River Parrett.

Like the rest of the candidates: Historic England states that "more research is essential" to challenge "the widely accepted belief" that the battle took place at Cannington Hill, near Bridgwater in Somerset.

The Devonshire Association (Sept. 2023) posits that "the battle’s more plausible location, according to the historical landscape and the military and tenurial history of the Torridge Valley, is [350m south of Woolleigh Bridge] at the Castle Hill settlement near Beaford".

Historic England (2024): Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort. List Entry Number: 1020807.

Harding, Dennis (2012): Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond, published by Oxford University Press.

Towering above the eastern flank of the Lyn Gorge, the prominent Wind Hill affords uninterrupted vistas across the Bristol Channel towards what is now Wales. 

According to etymological roots (English Place-names Society, 2024) ‘Cynwit’ or ‘Cynuit’ is more likely to denote a fortified hill or elevated place, associated with a noble family. 

Viking raids often aimed at wealthy settlements or areas with valuable resources. If Cynwit was associated with a noble family, it might have been seen as a source of loot, wealth, and supplies.

Etymology 

It’s possible that the names “Cynwit” and “Countisbury” have roots in Celtic language, given the historical existence of Celtic tribes in the British Isles, particularly in what is now known as North Devon.

Celts tended to name locations after physical landmarks, local myths, or significant events (Mills, A.D., Oxford Reference, 2011). 

Nonetheless, the precise origins of the names “Cynwit” or “Countisbury” remain unclear. We have to consider that the names of many UK locations have changed over the centuries, reflecting the influence of various languages and cultures.

The name “Cynwit” could potentially be derived from Celtic words or roots, as is common with many place names in regions with Celtic history. “Burh,” as recorded in Old English, serves as a translation of the Latin term arx.

Countisbury Wind Hill (NGR SS 7395 4930) could simply have been a Celtic fortress; Latin arx or Old English burh, called Cynwit [Cynuit] (Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names). In Anglo-Saxon, cyn translates to modern English kin, and to noble family.

This connection to noble families may add a layer of significance to the name "Cynwit," suggesting it could have been associated with a site of importance to a particular noble lineage or clan.

The Old English terms “burh” and “burg” evolved from the Proto-Germanic word “burg”, which is related to the verb “berg”, meaning “to shut in for protection”. These terms share a common origin with the German word “Burg”, the Dutch word “burcht”, and the Scandinavian word “borg”.

Beyond the English origins, these terms were occasionally used in Old English adaptations or variations of indigenous place names. This includes the Brittonic or Celtic term “dunon” for fortress, and the Welsh term “caer” for fortress.

These terms have variously developed from OE into “borough”, “burg”, "berry", and [Countis] "bury". Notably, Southeast England's [Canter]bury, Suffolk: [Alde]burgh, and Scotland: “[Edin] burgh”.

Survey of English Place Names: "Countisbury".

Oxford Academic (2012): Burhs and Boroughs.

The History of England: Burghal Hideage.

However, Devon's people are predominantly of Celtic origin, and the Celtic or Common Brittonic language (which developed into Cornish) was spoken in several distinct tongues, well into the Middle Ages.

Welsh, Cornish and Breton are related languages descending from ancient Brittonic (Brythonic), the pre-Roman and Roman-era Celtic languages of Great Britain.

Cornish and Breton are more closely related to each other, with the Welsh being the more unique of the three languages (Ball, M.J. ; Müller, Nicole, 2009).

The Old English phrase “mid his ágnum burhwarum” translates to “with his own townspeople” in modern English. Whilst it's fun playing with linguistics, we still have no answers.

In Old Welsh, Cunēt is suggested to mean “count” or “reckoning”. It is also associated with a fortified place, and with a Romano-British large-walled place on the River Kennet, Wiltshire: Cunetio, which might later have been occupied by an Anglo-Saxon chieftain. 

Countisbury could derive from Cunēt to which was added an explanatory suffix in Old English (450 AD -1100 AD). At a stretch we arrive at the word Cynuit (Cunētsburh/Cunētsbury).

Old Welsh or Hen Gymraeg refers to the period of the Welsh language in use from approximately 800 AD to the early part of the 12th century. Old Welsh features in a number of manuscripts, and as glosses (notations) on Latin texts.

The History Files: Post-Roman Britain - Introduction to Celtic Devon.

Omniglot: Old Welsh Writing.

A fusion of Old Welsh and Old English reflects the historical significance of this fortified location: a place for counting, strategy, and defense. The Welsh Church chronicler John Asser wrote in Latin, yet his writings show Old Welsh influences.

Alfred's court was multicultural, including scholars from various regions of Britain and mainland Europe. This speculation still fits the timeframe; and as the English Place-names Society (EPNS) notes: Asser's native Old Welsh language appears to have influenced his spelling conventions, such as his use of Celtic and Old Welsh forms for names.

The English Place-names Society (2024): "Countisbury - Major Settlement in the Parish of Countisbury".

John Asser | Catholic Answers Encyclopedia.

Though Cynwit's origins and the battle site remain unknown: EPNS adds that "on the phonological side it should be pointed out that Cynwit [Cynuit] is only one of the numerous Welsh spellings of Anglo-Saxon names found in [Welsh chronicler] Asser".

Moreover, EPNS states that "[Renowned historian Christopher] Plummer was probably right (Two Saxon Chronicles ii, 93) in identifying Countisbury with the arx Cynuit of Asser (c. 54), a place near the Devon coast where Ubba, brother of Ivarr the Boneless, suffered defeat".

Ivar the Boneless | Biography, Battles, & Facts | Britannica.

Riley & Wilson-North (2001): state that Wind Hill's classic univallate promontory hillfort encloses an area of 35 hectares, or about 86.5 acres. The monument typically comprises a high bank rampart and ditch, denying easy access for raiders (The Field Archaeology of Exmoor).

Placing the Ancient Cynwit in a Modern Context

To speculate: the Athletes’ Village from the London 2012 Olympics, which once accommodated 17,000 athletes, has been repurposed into the East Village. It now boasts more than 2,800 residences, with an additional 2,000 in the pipeline.

According to the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park website (2024): East Village is currently a thriving community of approximately 6,000 residents, featuring three playgrounds for children and 35 acres of open spaces and parks.

This analogy, while simplistic, emboldens the case for Wind Hill. If the West Saxons occupied the entire enclosure of 85.5 acres on Wind Hill: there could have been a few thousand people available to Earl Odda in January 878. 

The specific numbers of West Saxons at Cynwit are not known, and the West Saxons might not have occupied the entire area. Yet the available fyrd militia routed Hubba's Viking force.

Factors such as training, morale, and leadership would also play significant roles.

While this comparison is illustrative, it serves to help readers visualise the potential scale of the West Saxon presence and the scale of the battle.

It's worth pointing out that the speculative nature of ancient population estimates, and the complexity of military dynamics, means that this analogy would not hold up under rigorous scrutiny.

The London 2012 Athletes’ Village - East Village.

Evidence from the Prelate Scribe John Asser

Our understanding of ninth-century Britain, this transformative period, and the rise of Wessex, would be considerably limited without the information provided in Alfred's biography.

By the end of the century, the four distinct and influential Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that were present at the century’s onset—Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex—had consolidated into the single kingdom of Wessex.

John Asser a.k.a. Asserius Menevensis (c. 885-909 CE) described Cynwit, in his biography (893 CE) of King Alfred. Alfred ‘the Great’ ruled Wessex at the time, and later became King of all Anglo-Saxons. Most of the public transactions are found in the pages of the Saxon Chronicle.

According to Asser: the Viking army led by Hubba or Ubbe (brother of Ivar the Boneless), sailed from Dyfed with "twenty-three ships to Devon in Wessex. He was there slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his army. And there was taken the war-flag which they called the Raven" (Cook, A. S., Life of King Alfred, transl. 1906).

Asser—Bishop Asser—would have known Countisbury Hill as a conspicuous landmark which he says in the Life “as I myself have seen”, on his Bristol Channel trips from St David's, Dyfed, southwestern Wales.

Asser also noted that the arx Cynwit could only be approached from the eastern side, matching the geographical features of Countisbury Hill. Asser’s detailed account implies that he visited the battle site at Cynwit. Furthermore, the Welsh would have had a long-standing familiarity with Countisbury.

Anglo-Saxon King's Thegns

Thus far, we have left out one important piece of information from Asser's account of Cynwit. One translation of the Life states the King's thanes [thegns or lords] had shut themselves up for safety. Another version provided by Fordham University describes them as the King's followers.

Before the Normans conquered England in 1066, thanes were lords or free followers ranked similar to a feudal baron and knight after the Conquest. Wealthier thegns would also have maintained their own household troops.

Thanes were aristocrats who owned substantial land in one or more counties in Anglo-Saxon England. The word thane, ranking below noble ealdormen, appears in the laws before King Aethelstan died in 939.

Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook (fordham.edu)

Britannica: thane or feudal lord

The Cynwit West-Saxon Garrison in 878 CE

The Cynwit garrison described by Asser might have been composed of royal officials or retainers with judicial and military functions, above the common ceorl and secondary to Ealdorman Odda.

If that were true, it suggests Cynwit, possibly at Countisbury Hill comprising 35 hectares, was a significant Wessex stronghold and strategic target for Hubba's army. However, the actual site of the battle at Cynwit will probably never be known.

While exact numbers are not documented, it is reasonable to estimate that several hundred to a few thousand Anglo-Saxon militiamen, including thegns and their household troops, could have been present at Cynwit.

This would have provided a formidable defense against the Viking forces.

Asser's Reliability

Literary critic, linguist and scholar Albert S. Cook (1906) was one of the first to state that "Asser is an authority to be used with criticism and caution". Yet, "he is an authority nevertheless, and one whose statements are not to be set aside without adequate reason."

Asser's Life of Alfred is known for its tendency to exaggerate Alfred’s accomplishments, yet it remains arguably the most reliable source on Alfred's life. It was likely written to highlight Alfred’s greatness to the Northern Welsh kings, who had recently submitted to him.

By highlighting Alfred’s accomplishments, Asser aimed to reinforce Alfred’s authority and legitimacy as a ruler. 

Albert Cook also cautioned that neither the stories of Alfred burning cakes or the Viking Raven war-flag at Cynwit, have any basis in fact (Asser's Life of King Alfred, transl. from the text of Stevenson's edition).

Such stories might have been borrowed from Norse Sagas about Ragnar.

Robert Gallagher’s research (2021) has provided new insights into Asser’s Life of King Alfred. By examining the vocabulary and phrasing used in both Asser’s biography and various Anglo-Saxon charters, Gallagher identified several previously unnoticed connections.

Gallagher states that these findings support the authenticity of Asser’s work as a genuine text from the late ninth century (Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters).

Asser's life of King Alfred by Asser, John, d. 909; Cook, Albert S. (Albert Stanburrough), 1853-1927. Boston, New York : Ginn & company.

Gallagher, Robert. “Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters.” The English Historical Review, vol. 136, no. 581, August 2021, pp. 773–808. Https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceab276. 

The legendary Viking hero Ragnar Lodbrok is said to be the father of Ubba and his brothers. However, there is no contemporary evidence in the annals to support this assertion. The connection between Ubba and Ragnar Lodbrok appears in later sagas and legends.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a primary source, provides a chronological account of events but does not name Ubba as the leader at the Battle of Cynwit.
Asser’s Life of King Alfred also does not name the Viking leader at Cynwit but provides context for the events of the time.

Discussing the Size of Ninth-Century Danish Armies

Frank M. Stenton, in Anglo-Saxon England (1971), notes the difficulty in forming a clear impression of the size of ninth-century Danish armies.

While historical records often mention the number of Viking ships in a fleet, there is little early information about how many fighting men each longship carried. The available evidence suggests that each ship carried at least fifty people to the Cynwit siege.

Skuldelev 2 – the 11th century great Viking longship discovered in 1957- is a fast war vessel designed to transport 65-70 warriors. This chieftain’s ship is akin to those celebrated in ancient Old Norse skaldic poetry, and sagas (Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde).

Skuldelev 2 was discovered during underwater archaeological explorations by divers in Peberrenden, Roskilde Fjord. It was excavated alongside other Skuldelev ships in 1962. Tree-ring analysis of the timber show that Skuldelev 2 was built of oak, near Dublin around 1042.

Initially, the ship's size surprised the archaeologists, leading them to believe it was two vessels. It was only during later analyses that they realised it was a single ship of unprecedented dimensions.

Stenton cautions against using data from the great war vessels of the eleventh century to make assumptions about the ships of this earlier period.

Amidst this uncertainty, he points to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which records that 23 ships came to Devon in 877, and lost 840 men at the Battle of Countisbury.

Stenton suggests that this contemporary statement, likely based on local knowledge, implies that each ship carried at least 36 fighting men.

Although the numbers of the slain may have been exaggerated, Stenton highlights the high probability that a considerable portion of the Viking host survived the battle. He concludes that the size of a large Viking army should likely be measured in thousands rather than hundreds.

New Evidence and Methodologies

Books like James Campbell’s collaborative volume The Anglo-Saxons (1991), and Neil Price’s The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings (2020), offer updated interpretations that incorporate new evidence and methodologies.

In his work, The Age of the Vikings (1971), Peter H. Sawyer discusses the difficulty of estimating the size of Viking armies, similar to Stenton’s observations.

Sawyer emphasizes the challenges in interpreting the available data, particularly the inconsistencies and exaggerations found in contemporary sources like the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

He supports the view that Viking armies, particularly those involved in major campaigns, were likely substantial in size, potentially numbering in the thousands rather than hundreds.

Sawyer also echoes the idea that the figures provided in sources should be taken with caution, yet he acknowledges the significant threat posed by these Viking forces, much like Stenton does.

He emphasizes the logistical capabilities of the Vikings, which would have allowed them to field and sustain large armies across extensive campaigns.

While Stenton and Sawyer’s works remain important and influential, they should be read in conjunction with more recent scholarship to gain a complete and current understanding of the topics they cover.

Newer research can provide updated perspectives, additional evidence, and sometimes revisions to the conclusions drawn by earlier historians. Therefore, while these sources are still relevant, they are most effectively used alongside contemporary studies in the field.

Price, N. (2020). The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings. Basic Civitas Books; Illustrated edition (25 Aug. 2020).

Campbell, J., John, E., & Wormald, P. (1991). The Anglo-Saxons. Penguin Books.

Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press, p. 249.

Sawyer, P. H. (1971). The Age of the Vikings. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 75-80.

Historians Supporting Wind Hill as Arx Cynwit

Respected historian and archaeologist Dr Robert Higham, in his Making Anglo Saxon Devon: Emergence of a Shire (2008, p. 64), identified Countisbury near Lynmouth as the “location of the Viking siege led by Ubba [Hubba, Ubbe], one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo-Saxon England in the 860s.”

Michael Rayner, co-ordinator of the Battlefields Trust, placed the battle at Countisbury: "Battle of Countisbury Hill, 878". Rayner describes the victory as "morale boosting for the Wessex Saxons when they had been forced onto the defensive by the Danish Vikings" (2006, p. 109).

Rayner, Michael (2006): English battlefields : 500 battlefields that shaped English history. The History Press; UK ed. edition.

Landscape historian William G. Hoskins CBE FBA, in his well-respected, influential and comprehensive study: A New Survey of England – Devon (1954), states that “the precise scene of the battle was the earthwork, about [one mile] W. of the village, on the high neck of land between the Lyn gorge and the sea.”

Archaeological Evidence for Countisbury Wind Hill

Exmoor Heritage designates Wind Hill as an Iron Age earthwork to the east of Lynton and Lynmouth (Exmoor HER MEM25099). The large promontory fort "is one of the suggested sites for Cynwit mentioned by Asser and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (online: Battle of Cynwit, Countisbury [Monument]).

The original connotation of a burh was arx, castellum, mons. The origin of the name Cynwit/Cynuit is not certain; yet Arx Cynwit could have been the fortress of an Anglo-Saxon settlement at Countisbury, named `Contesberie' in Domesday.

Bosworth Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online: BURH.

The earthwork monument is located near postcode EX35 6NT, NGR SS 7395 4930, by the A39 Lynton to Countisbury road, and overlooks Lynmouth Bay to the north. Wind Hill offers a high commanding view of the East Lyn valley, and is strategically positioned for defence.

Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort, Lynton and Lynmouth - 1020807 | Historic England. 

Anglo-Saxon Burhs 

Under Alfred the Great, the Anglo-Saxons established a series of fortified towns, or “burhs”, throughout their realm. These strongholds a.k.a. arx were instrumental against Viking raids.

While the Battle of Cynwit was a significant event in the ongoing conflict between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings, it’s not directly linked to the creation of the Anglo-Saxon Burghal Hidage in c911. The Burghal Hidage is more directly related to Alfred the Great’s broader defensive strategy against the Vikings.

Burhs protected the inhabitants during assaults and functioned as key military outposts. This novel defensive strategy greatly contributed to King Alfred’s destruction of the Viking invasion. On the whole, the burh system proved to be an effective defence strategy.

Yet as we'll discuss later, Alfred was not the only nemesis of the Vikings in England and Wales.

Haslam, Jeremy: The Burghal Hidage and the West Saxon burhs. Cambridge University Press, Vol. 45 (2017).

Why Cynwit of 878 CE is Significant

Power, Politics and Warfare of the Era

Alfred wasn’t the sole adversary of the Vikings, nor was he the only monarch bestowed with the title “Great”. During this era, England and Wales were engaged in territorial struggles. Both nations stood their ground and were formidable opponents against the Viking invasions. 

Welsh King Rhodri Mawr 'the Great'

MacNeill, Ryan (2019): The Great Heathen Failure: Why the Great Heathen Army Failed to Conquer the Whole of Anglo-Saxon England. Thesis, Winthrop University.

The Battle of Cynwit Contributed to Anglo-Saxon Independence

Historians consider that the West Saxons’ victory over the Danes at Cynwit ultimately led to King Alfred’s destruction of the Great Heathen Army at the Battle of Edington in 878, which saved Anglo-Saxon independence.

Edington was shortly followed by the Peace of Wedmore. Following the battle, Alfred and Guthrum reached a peace agreement, which included Guthrum’s baptism and the establishment of boundaries between the Anglo-Saxon and Viking territories.

The treaty delineated clear boundaries between Anglo-Saxon and Viking territories. This division reduced immediate threats from Viking raids in certain areas, allowing for the development of Anglo-Saxon society and governance.

Battle of Edington [Ethundun] 878 | Summary | Britannica.

Oxford Reference (2024): Treaty of Wedmore 878 CE.

Oxford Bibliographies (2023): Alfred The Great - Medieval Studies.

Yorke, Barbara (History Today, 1999): "Alfred the Great: The Most Perfect Man in History?". History Today Vol. 49 Issue 10, 1999.

Anglo-Saxon Ealdormen and the Fyrd

Anglo-Saxon Ealdormen or Earls, held administrative authority for tax collection, governance, and for mobilising the fyrd militia, in the administrative divisions they controlled. These high-ranking royal functionaries governed one or more shires, and answered directly to the king.

In Anglo-Saxon England, every freeman was legally required to serve in the fyrd militia when called upon, although this could not always be enforced in practice.

Mōmmaerts-Browne, T.S.M. (2005): Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy: Tracing Lineages.

Oxford Reference (2023): Fyrd.

Career of Alfred the Great, AD 871-901, by Thomas Hughes. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (23 Aug. 2017).

The Vikings Occupy Parts of Devon in 1001 CE

In 1001 CE, after incursions in the 9th century AD, the Vikings succeeded in occupying parts of Devon, establishing settlements and exerting control over the area. While this Viking occupation was significant, it was relatively short-lived compared to other historical periods.

Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel, approximately 10 nautical miles (19 km) off the coast of North Devon, England, derives its name from Old Norse: “lund” (meaning “puffin”) and “ey” (meaning “island”). 

According to the Devonshire Association (2024), Lundy Island is a unique case with Viking origins in the region. While the Vikings influenced Devon, most of Devon’s place names have their roots in Old English or Celtic languages and cultures.

Although Vikings formed alliances with the Cornish against the Saxons, there is scant evidence of their occupation in Cornwall, which they called "Kernow". 

Devon's rich history includes influences from Celtic tribes, Roman occupation, and later Anglo-Saxon settlements. The Norman Conquest of 1066 changed the region beyond recognition.

Devon Place-Names Project – The Devonshire Association (devonassoc.org.uk).

The Vikings: A History | Historic Cornwall (historic-cornwall.org.uk).

The Viking Age in Europe

The era known as the Viking Age, a significant phase in Denmark’s prehistory, extended from approximately 800 CE to 1050 CE. From the 9th century CE, the first Viking kings emerged. This epoch was marked by maritime voyages to distant lands, and substantial societal transformations. The Vikings sought to trade, accumulate wealth, and to conquer new land. 

From the late 8th century CE onwards, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were frequently attacked by the Norsemen. At the start of the Viking Age in Europe: their infamous raid on the monastery at Lindisfarne in 793 CE was graphically documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

A sequence of invasions and conflicts followed, as the Vikings ravaged and looted settlements, taking livestock and portable wealth. Initially sending shockwaves throughout English Christendom: these raids would continue for two centuries.

Apart from King Alfred, there were other significant figures who played a role in the resistance against the Vikings during the Anglo-Saxon period. The Viking Age in Europe is widely considered to have ended in the year 1066, marked by the Norman Conquest of England.

National Museums of Denmark: The Viking Age.

English Heritage (2023): The Viking Raid on Lindisfarne.

When Did the Viking Age End? What Happened to the Vikings? Clear Answers for a Quick and Precise Understanding - True Scandinavia.

The Anglo-Saxon Burghal Hidage 

The Burghal Hidage, an Anglo-Saxon document thought to have been produced between 911 and 914 (although other theories exist), represents the strategy implemented by Alfred in the late 9th century to brace for the resurgence of Viking invasions, which indeed occurred in 892.

The document provides an in-depth view of the system of fortified towns known as burhs.

The History of England: Burghal Hidage.

The Vikings raided Watchet, Somerset, in 918 according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle for 902-924. The chronicle records they came to Watchet again in 987, and in 997 with much evil wrought in burning and manslaughter.

Viking chieftains Svein and his offspring Knut extended their activities to the southernmost parts of Anglo-Saxon Devon and Cornwall. Viking leaders such as Pallig Tokeson raided Devon, assaulting a number of coastal settlements.

In 997, the Vikings navigated up the Tamar River, launched an attack on the Tavistock Abbey, and returned to their ships with looted treasure (The Vikings in Devon - Dartmoor Resource).

What if the Vikings Had Won at Arx Cynwit?

If the battle in 878 CE had ended in defeat for the West Saxons: the implications could have been disastrous for England. Alfred would have been dethroned, or worse. England would have become a Danish state with profound implications for its culture, language, and identity (Nick Arnold, 2008: Medieval News - "Site of Battle of Cynuit Discovered").

King Alfred sought to cultivate a shared identity among the Angles, transcending regional factionism. He envisioned Angelcynn—the Anglo-Saxon family—as a means to forge a united, resilient society capable of withstanding the Viking incursions and their cultural impact.

Wessex under Alfred was the only surviving Anglo-Saxon province, and the bulwark against the Danish invasion. A loss for the West Saxons might have undermined the King's resistance and potentially reshaped English history.

Expansion of the Vikings: The West Saxons’ victory at the arx Cynwit was a blow to the Vikings, especially the “Great Heathen Army” that was in the process of conquering and subjugating many of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. A victory for the Vikings could have hastened their expansion and reinforced their dominance over more territories.

Political Repercussions: The political dynamics of England could have been dramatically altered, with potential shifts in the power balance among the various kingdoms.

In the event, West Saxony became a central power during the late Anglo-Saxon period from circa the 9th century to the Norman Conquest in 1066.

The Conquest deposed England's rulers whose legacy, particularly Alfred the Great and his descendants, laid the foundations for a unified English monarchy and England's sociological development.

Collective Efforts Subdued The Vikings in This Era

Not only Alfred the Great and Rhodri Mawr, but numerous other leaders and communities throughout England and Wales resisted the Viking invasions. Their united stand was instrumental in safeguarding their lands during this period of upheaval.

The Vikings in Britain: a brief history / Historical Association.

History is Complex

Our comments merely reflect our understanding and opinions from numerous sources and credible accounts we include here.

Texts and records are open to interpretation, and historic texts can be analysed through different lenses while considering the cultural, social, and political contexts of their time.

If the Vikings had taken control of Wessex, the repercussions would have hinged on a multitude of factors, including the strategies of the leaders, alliances, and numerous other historical events.

History is complex and everything is linked; a single event can trigger far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Wessex under Alfred was the only surviving Anglo-Saxon administrative division; yet his saintly reputation, which draws largely on the politicised Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (ASC), has recently been challenged.

Hagiographies and Propaganda

While neither the valuable ASC nor Asser’s important biography of Alfred are hagiographies: they do contain elements of idealism, such as the portrayal of Alfred as a saint.

King Alfred 'The Great' is a celebrated monarch, yet historical sources can sometimes contain elements of propaganda, bias and myth.

Conclusion

Wind Hill above Lynmouth on Exmoor, North Devon, is a primary candidate for the Battle of Arx Cynwit in 878 AD, which was seminal in the Anglo-Saxons' struggle against Viking invaders.

Wind Hill's height at c.300 metres, and its natural geographical features such as steep cliffs, deep valleys, and its location on the Bristol Channel, offer support for the hypothesis that it could have been the location of the battle.

Wind Hill's features match descriptions in Asser's Life of Alfred and other sources discussed in this article. A combination of natural and man-made defences created a stronghold that was highly defensible against attacks (Historic England L.E.N. 1020807, Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort).

The Vikings themselves left very little written evidence of their attacks on Britain. Most of what we know about their invasions and settlements comes from the perspectives of those they encountered, particularly Anglo-Saxon accounts.

Geoffrey Gaimer, the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman chronicler, asserts that Hubba landed from South Wales along the Exmoor coast. He conceivably seized and held a beachhead before encountering the Saxons at a fort named Cynwit (National Trust, 100256 / MNA108011).

However, without direct archaeological evidence such as artifacts from the Viking or Saxon force, the connection remains speculative and is primarily based on geographical and historical analysis rather than concrete evidence.

King Alfred the Great’s reign (871-899 AD) saw Wessex under constant Viking threat. His defensive strategies and military reforms, including fortified towns, a standing army, and alliances, were crucial in preserving Wessex and setting the stage for England’s unification.

Cynwit marked a significant setback for Viking expansion and bolstered Anglo-Saxon resistance, shaping the future of the British Isles.

The victory at Arx Cynwit solidified Anglo-Saxon dominance and political stability, paving the way for a unified English kingdom and the rise of the English monarchy (The History Guild: "The Development of England").

Alfred’s successors, particularly his son Edward the Elder and grandson Athelstan, built on his foundations. They expanded their control over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, eventually leading to the unification of England under a single monarchy.

Acknowledging the diverse identities and experiences of all groups involved in early medieval Britain is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of its history. In doing so, a more inclusive narrative develops, reflecting the complexities of the times and fostering a deeper appreciation for the rich tapestry of Britain’s heritage.

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Views expressed in this article are solely those of the authors.

Footnotes:

From the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Vikings launched raids and established colonies across vast regions of Europe. An early recorded encounter between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons occurred in 787 CE, when Viking ships arrived on the Dorset coast, executing a royal official.

These incursions escalated in the 860s, with large Viking forces invading and looting the Anglo-Saxon territories of Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. In 860, the Vikings blockaded Winchester, the capital of Wessex, but were repelled by the Anglo-Saxons led by King Æthelwulf (r. 839 to 858) and his son Alfred.

The Viking attacks continued until 896, culminating in their retreat to East Anglia where they settled. These raids significantly influenced the political and cultural landscape of West Saxony, prompting the Anglo-Saxons to consolidate their defences.

Alfred’s countermeasures against the Great Heathen Army marked an epoch in the formation of the English kingdom, as noted by the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic at the University of Cambridge. His victory over the Vikings unified the Anglo-Saxon people, paving the way for his descendants to govern a united England.

Alfred authored significant English legal codes, safeguarded his realm from Viking conquests, and emerged as England’s pre-eminent ruler. He initiated a sense of ‘English’ identity that transcended the smaller existing kingdoms.

His initiatives included translating classical texts from Latin into English, establishing public schools, overhauling the military, and updating and enlarging the legal system. However, some argue that Alfred’s reputation may be partly attributed to propaganda. Among other academic authors, Simon Keynes explores this perspective in his 1999 journal article “The Cult of King Alfred.”

Records and texts are open to interpretation. And despite Alfred’s remarkable reign there are debates surrounding the effectiveness of his military reforms, such as the construction of redoubts, and a network of fortified towns (burhs) garrisoned by a standing army (McDermott, 2009, Alfred the Great: Viking Wars and Military Reforms).

Combe Martin historian John H. Moore reports that "the Vikings left no place names in Devon (if we exclude Lundy which means Puffin Island) but a few Anglo-Danish personal names appear later in Cnut's time." (Sellman 1962 p. 23).

Sources accessed 2023-2024:
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, entry for 787: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/ang08.asp. "These were the first ships of the Danish men that sought the land of the English nation."

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: 10th Century: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/ang10.asp. "Stealing up twice; at one time to the east of Watchet, and at another time at Porlock".

Ball, Martin J. ; Müller, Nicole (2015): The Celtic Languages. Routledge. London and New York.

Bately, Janet. The Compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Once More. 1985. Leeds University Digital Library. Http://digital.library.leeds.ac.uk/id/eprint/223. 

Bosworth Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online: https://bosworthtoller.com/005434.

Cambridge University Press. (2024). The Cambridge History of Scandinavia. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/series/cambridge-history-of-scandinavia/A99151681DE38E9EA306D3B07CB383CA.

Cambridge University Press (online): 12 February 2009: The Making of Angelcynn: English Identity before the Norman Conquest.

Gallagher, Robert (2021): Asser and the Writing of West Saxon Charters. The English Historical Review, Volume 136, Issue 581, August 2021, Pages 773–808, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceab276. 

Giles, J.A. (1914). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. London: G. Bell and Sons Ltd.

Heritage Gateway (2023): Heritage Environment Records Hob Uid 1554202. "Battle of Winchester 860 CE".

Historic England (2024): Earthwork defences of Countisbury Castle promontory fort. List Entry Number: 1020807.

Hill, Paul. The Viking Wars of Alfred the Great. Stroud: Amberley Publishing, 2015.

History Guild (The), "The Development of England". https://historyguild.org/the-development-of-england/ .

Hogg, Richard M., ed. (1992). The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hoskins, W.G. (1954): A New Survey of England ; "Devon". Collins, London.

Keynes, Simon: “The Cult of King Alfred the Great.” Anglo-Saxon England, vol. 28, 1999, pp. 225–356. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44512350. Accessed 11 Jan. 2024.

Keynes, Simon; Lapidge, Michael (1983): Alfred the Great, Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin.

Lloyd, J. E., & Lloyd, D. M., (1959). ASSER (died 909), bishop and scholar. Dictionary of Welsh Biography. Retrieved 15 Oct 2024, from https://biography.wales/article/s-ASSE-JOH-0909.

Lutz, Angelika. "Æthelweard's Chronicon and Old English Poetry." Anglo-Saxon England 29 (2000): pp. 177-214. DOI: 10.1017/S0263675100002453. 

Mark, Joshua J. (2018): Kingdom of Wessex. World History Encyclopedia online (2024).

McDermott, Gary (2009): Alfred the Great: Viking Wars and Military Reforms. 

Mills, A.D. (2011): A Dictionary of British Place Names. Oxford University Press online.

National Museum of Denmark: Written sources shed light on Viking travels. https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/expeditions-and-raids/written-sources/.

National Trust (2024): https://heritagerecords.nationaltrust.org.uk/HBSMR/MonRecord.aspx?uid=MNA108011. 

Riley, H. & Wilson-North, R. (2001): The Field Archaeology of Exmoor. English Heritage.

Sellman, R.R. (1962): Illustrations of Devon History. England. Metheun (1 Jan. 1962).

"Skuldelev 2."; Viking Ship Museum (2024): https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/education/the-longships/findings-of-longships-from-the-viking-age/skuldelev-2.

Schoolshistory.org.uk: Viking Raid on Lindisfarne: Source Material. https://schoolshistory.org.uk/topics/primary-history/source-material-the-vikings/viking-raid-on-lindisfarne-source/.

Short, Ian, ed., Geffrei Gaimar: Estoire des Engleis, History of the English. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Swanton, Michael. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. London: Routledge, 1996.

The Historian's Hut: The First Reported Contact Between Britain and Vikings. https://thehistorianshut.com/2019/04/13/the-first-reported-contact-between-britain-and-vikings/.

Thornton, D.E. (2004): Rhodri Mawr (b. before 844, d. 878), king of Gwynedd. Oxford. ODNB.

Unknown. (1996 [1823]): The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (James Henry Ingram, Trans.). Project Gutenberg. Https://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt. 

Viking Ship Museum Roskilde (2024): The Vikings in England. 

Waggoner, Ben [Translator] (2015): The Sagas of Ragnar Lodbrok. Blackstone Audio, Inc.

Whybrow, Charles (1970): Antiquary's Exmoor. Exmoor Press.

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Cite this page: Combe Martin History and Heritage Project (2024): A Viking Defeat at Ayx Cynuit (878 CE). Available at https://www.combemartinvillage.co.uk/early-histories/arx-cynuit-countisbury. Accessed (date).

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